Paint formulation fundamentals are the 5 concepts that decide where an additive goes and how much of it a formula carries: raw-material groups, manufacturing stages, pigment volume concentration (PVC), minimum film formation temperature (MFFT) and the dosage basis. Additives make up about 1.8 % of the total formula in one published EU Ecolabel matte guide formulation, and every additive level carries one of 4 bases: on pigment, metal on binder solids, ppm active or on total formula.
This section index lists the 5 concept pages and what each one explains, then shows where each of the 15 families of paint additives enters a batch and on which basis its level is written. It closes with the question each concept page answers and the 2 calculators that apply the concepts.
How we check: regulations and classifications are read at the body that issues them, standards at the standards body, and every additive level names its basis and its source; the full method is in methodology and fact-checking.
What Do Formulation Fundamentals Cover?#
Formulation fundamentals cover 5 numbers a formulator fixes before choosing an additive: the share of each raw-material group, the step at which each component enters, the pigment-to-binder volume balance, the film-formation temperature and the level basis.
Additives are a small part of a paint by weight. The PCC EU Ecolabel indoor white matte guide formulation carries about 1.8 % additives on total formula, and a distributor guide formulation from Raykem for an interior mid-sheen paint carries 1.35 to 3.45 % of total batch.
Paint making itself is a physical process. EPA AP-42, section 6.4, describes paint manufacture as only physical processes of weighing, mixing, grinding, tinting, thinning and packaging, with no chemical reaction, in large mixing tanks at about room temperature. The same document treats varnish cooking as resin making, not paint mixing.
The 5 Formulation Concept Pages and What Each Explains#
The 5 formulation concept pages explain paint raw materials, the manufacturing process, pigment volume concentration and CPVC, minimum film formation temperature and additive dosage, and each one names the method or standard behind its numbers. The table gives each page with one sourced example value.
| Concept page | What it explains | Method or standard named there | Example value (source) | Open it when |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paint raw materials | Binders, pigments, extenders, solvents or water and additives, and where additives fit | Composition shares of published guide formulations | PCC EU Ecolabel indoor white matte guide formulation: binder dispersion 20 %, titanium dioxide 14 %, extenders 36 % (w/w on total formula) | You need the share or role of a raw-material group |
| How paint is manufactured | Premix, dispersion, let-down, adjustment, tinting and filling, and where each additive goes in | EPA AP-42 section 6.4 process description; ASTM D1210-05(2022) fineness check | EPA AP-42 6.4: varnish cooking at 93-340 °C (200-650 °F) for 4-16 h is resin making, not paint mixing | You set or troubleshoot an order of addition |
| Pigment volume concentration (PVC) and CPVC | Volume balance of pigment and binder, the critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) and oil absorption | ASTM D281-12(2021) and ASTM D1483-12(2023) oil absorption; ASTM D5201-26 formulation constants | Heubach guide formulation No. 132-01, 2K epoxy primer: PVC 34.0 % at PVC/CPVC 0.6 | Gloss, hiding, porosity or scrub depend on pigment loading |
| Minimum film formation temperature (MFFT) | Lowest film-forming temperature of a latex and how coalescents shift it | ASTM D2354-10(2023), limited to MFFT below 90 °C (194 °F) | One latex data sheet quoted by Palasz (PCI): MFFT 23 °C (73 °F), Tg 26 °C (79 °F) | A latex paint cracks or forms no film in the cold |
| Paint additive dosage | Starting levels by additive type, the basis of each level and ladder studies | The basis table on this page | % on total formula = % on pigment x pigment mass fraction (arithmetic) | You convert, compare or ladder a level |
The pigment volume concentration page carries the PVC and CPVC calculation, and the calculator section below names the tool that runs it.
Where Do Additives Sit Among the Raw-Material Groups?#
A paint has 5 raw-material groups: binder, pigment, extender, solvent or water, and additives. The binder forms the film, the pigment hides and colors, the extender adds volume, the water or solvent carries the other groups, and each additive supplies one function to the formula.
A direct-to-metal paint carries a larger additive package than an interior matte paint. The PCC waterborne direct-to-metal anticorrosive guide formulation reaches about 11 % additives as supplied on total formula, of which a coalescent supplies 2.2 %, two HEUR thickener solutions at 50 % supply 4.1 % and corrosion inhibitors 2.0 %.
At Which Stage Does Each Additive Family Go In?#
In both published orders compared below, the dispersant and a defoamer enter the liquid before the pigment, while the latex or binder, the thickener and a second defoamer dose follow it. The table sets the two orders side by side, step by step.
| Step | US 8,293,002 B2 semi-gloss (listing order in the patent) | PCC EU Ecolabel indoor white matte (guide formulation order) |
|---|---|---|
| Liquid before the pigment | Water, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), biocide, propylene glycol, polyacrylate dispersant, KTPP (pentapotassium triphosphate), surfactant, defoamer, amine | Water, dispersants, defoamer |
| Pigment and extender | Titanium dioxide (TiO2), kaolin | Pigments and fillers added slowly, then ground |
| Fineness check | See the fineness of grind (Hegman gauge) page | Grind to fineness before the let-down |
| After the pigment | Latex, water, HEUR thickener, defoamer | Water, HEC solution, binder, polyether thickener, biocide, defoamer |
The two orders place the biocide differently: before the pigment in the patent listing and after it in the guide formulation. Fineness is checked before the binder goes in, and ASTM D1210-05(2022) measures fineness of grind with a Hegman-type gauge on which 0 Hegman = 100 µm and 8 = 0 µm.
Which Basis Does Each Additive Level Use?#
Four level bases cover the additive families: % as supplied on pigment for dispersants, % metal on binder solids for driers, ppm active on total paint for biocides, and % as supplied on total formula for the rest. The table gives one sourced example per family, each written as that product's or formulation's value.
| Family | Level basis | Example level (product, basis, source) |
|---|---|---|
| Dispersing agents for paint | % on pigment | US 8,293,002 B2: polyacrylate dispersant 7.00 parts (25 % active) on 250 parts pigment = 0.70 % active on pigment (2.80 % as supplied on pigment, calculated) = 0.67 % as supplied on total |
| Rheology modifiers (cellulose ethers) | % on total formula | SE Tylose (producer statement for its cellulose ethers in paint): 0.2-0.5 % on total formula |
| Paint driers | % metal on binder solids | 12% Cobalt Ten-Cem (Borchers product page): 0.03-0.08 % Co on vehicle solids in conventional alkyds; drier product = batch x binder-solids fraction x target metal % / metal % of drier, for example 15,000 kg x 0.40 x 0.06 % / 12 % = 30 kg (calculated) |
| Paint biocides, in-can | ppm active on total paint | 1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one (BIT) label (EPA Reg. No. 6836-423): 97-483 ppm active (0.05-0.25 % of a 19.3 % product) |
| Biocides, dry-film | ppm active, with % product and active content | Iodopropynyl butylcarbamate (IPBC) label (EPA Reg. No. 5383-205): exterior 1,600-4,800 ppm active (0.4-1.2 % of a 40 % product) |
| Paint defoamers | % as supplied on total formula | BYK-1640 (BYK product page), silicone- and mineral-oil-free: 0.05-0.5 % as supplied on total, emulsion paints at pigment volume concentration 30-85 % |
| Coalescing agents for latex paint | % as supplied on total formula | Distributor guide formulation, Raykem: 0.5-1.5 % of total batch |
| Paint additive substances | All substances with their level and basis | See each substance page |
Levels convert between bases by exact arithmetic. Parts per million active equal % product x active fraction x 10,000, so 0.10 % of a 19.3 % BIT product gives 193 ppm active (0.10 x 0.193 x 10,000). A level of 5.99 g/L (5 lb per 100 US gal) in a paint of 1,378 g/L (11.5 lb/gal) is 0.43 % w/w (5 / 1,150 x 100 = 0.435).
Which Concept Page Answers Which Formulation Question?#
Pick the concept page by the question: composition goes to raw materials, sequence to manufacturing, gloss, hiding and porosity to pigment volume concentration, cold-weather film formation to MFFT, and how-much questions to dosage. The 5 questions below follow the order of the concept pages.
- What is the paint made of, and where do the additives sit? Raw materials.
- In which order do the components enter the batch? Manufacturing.
- Why do gloss, hiding or porosity change with pigment loading? Pigment volume concentration and CPVC.
- Why does a latex paint crack or form no film in the cold? MFFT.
- How much of an additive does the formula need, and on which basis? Dosage.
MFFT shows how 2 concepts meet in one paint. Perera, Vanden Eynde and Borsus (Journal of Coatings Technology, 2001) describe MFFT as directly related to the glass transition temperature (Tg), with a higher coalescent level giving a lower Tg. In their acrylic paint, a binder MFFT of 22 °C (71.6 °F) without coalescent became a paint MFFT of 12 °C (53.6 °F) with 3 % coalescent added to the paint. The substrate takes part as well: in the same study, 6.3 % and 15.4 % of the coalescent of two test paints moved into a porous fiber-cement substrate.
Calculators That Apply These Formulation Concepts#
Two calculators apply these concepts: the pigment volume concentration calculator computes PVC, volume solids and the PVC/CPVC ratio from a formula, and the VOC content calculator computes g/L with and without water and exempt compounds. The 3 entry points are listed below.
- Pigment volume concentration calculator: PVC, volume solids and PVC/CPVC from a formula.
- Paint VOC content calculator: g/L with and without water and exempt compounds.
- Paint formulation calculators: every tool and the quote request.
Both calculators follow the assumptions of ASTM D5201-26: ideal mixing with no volume change, retained liquids such as plasticizers and reactive diluents counted as solids, and volatiles released during cure excluded.
The basis of a VOC result depends on the jurisdiction. In the EU, a volatile organic compound has an initial boiling point of 250 °C (482 °F) or less at 101.3 kPa (Directive 2004/42/EC Art. 2(5)), and the content is given in g/L of the ready-to-use paint with water included, while the US federal AIM rule counts g/L less water and exempt compounds (40 CFR 59.406). Limit values by category are set out in VOC in paint, and lb/gal values convert at 1 lb/gal = 119.83 g/L.
How the Fundamentals Connect to Paint Types, Tests and Rules#
The fundamentals feed 3 other sections of the site: the additive package of each paint type, the test methods that measure additive performance and the regulations that limit additives. How to formulate a paint of a given type, interior or exterior, is answered on the paint-type pages; the 3 sections are listed below.
- Paint formulations by paint type: the additive package of each paint type.
- Paint test methods: fineness, viscosity, MFFT and other tests.
- Paint additive regulations: VOC, biocides, CLP labels and restricted substances.